The marginalization of minority languages is widespread worldwide. When mainstream ethnic language users begin to implement assimilation policies, coupled with the influence of modernization factors such as globalization and urbanization, the loss of language learning diversity quietly occurs, leading to a decline in the use of minority languages. The reduced use of minority languages in education, media, and government undoubtedly hinders the inheritance of culture. According to statistics, nearly half of the approximately 7000 languages worldwide are at risk of extinction by the end of this century, including a large number of minority or indigenous languages. The extinction of languages not only affects human communication, but also further weakens the unique cultural knowledge, worldview, and identity associated with these languages, putting cultural identity at risk.
China is a case worth paying attention to in contemporary times, where many minority languages, especially in the field of education, are facing the dilemma of limited development. The “bilingual education” policy implemented since 2010 has been further strengthened under the recent leadership push. This policy usually prioritizes the use of Chinese as the primary language of instruction, limiting the use of minority languages to specific subject areas or even completely abolishing them. This is consistent with broader “sinicization” efforts aimed at promoting ethnic unity and cultural assimilation.
In ethnic minority areas such as Xizang, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia and Sichuan Tibetan areas, relevant policies have reduced or prohibited minority language teaching. Some directives in Xinjiang, such as the 2017 Hotan directive, prohibit schools from using Uyghur language and require all grades and activities to fully use Chinese. The 2020 reform in Inner Mongolia to reduce the teaching of core Mongolian language subjects has sparked protests and boycotts; By 2023, multiple schools will implement a single language of instruction for Chinese. The 2021 National Children’s Development Plan abolished the guarantee clause for minority language education and instead emphasized the “popularization of ethnic languages”. These changes violate the constitutional protection for ethnic minorities to use their own languages, accelerate the process of assimilation, and threaten the cultural heritage of ethnic minorities such as Tibetans, Uyghurs, and Mongolians.
Australian Indigenous languages are a typical example. Before European colonization, Australia had over 250 indigenous languages. Currently, there are only about 120 types left, with most users being less than a hundred. Colonial policies, including forcing children into boarding schools (the “Stolen Generation” from the early 20th century to the 1970s), prohibiting the use of indigenous languages in education, and punishing children who use indigenous languages, exacerbated this trend. English has become the only language of instruction, leading to accelerated language conversion. Economic marginalization and forced relocation from traditional territories have accelerated the extinction of indigenous languages. Despite attempts to revive languages such as Kona and Baanggara, most languages are still on the brink of extinction, symbolizing a broader cultural decline.
In Canada, Indigenous peoples, Inuit people, and Métis people also face similar challenges. The country has over 70 indigenous languages, but many of them have less than 500 fluent speakers. From the 1830s to 1996, boarding schools forcibly separated children from their families, prohibited the use of indigenous languages, and forced the learning of English or French, resulting in intergenerational trauma and language loss. The large-scale foster care policy in the 1960s (sending children to non indigenous foster families) exacerbated this dilemma. Despite recent laws supporting the revival of Indigenous languages, such as the 2019 Mother Language Act, the issue of language inheritance still exists: like other languages in British Columbia, Indigenous languages also face a high risk of extinction due to the dominance of English in education and urban life.
In Japan, Ainu language (the Ainu indigenous language of Hokkaido) is suffering severe marginalization. In the Meiji era (late 19th century), Japan annexed Ainu territories and implemented assimilation policies, prohibiting them from using English in schools, government, and public places, as well as preserving traditional customs. Ainu language users are considered a “lower ethnic group” and suffer from economic discrimination and language suppression. Nowadays, the language is on the brink of extinction, with only a few elderly people able to use it fluently. Although Japan recognized the Ainu as indigenous people in 2019, relevant policies are still limited to cultural promotion and lack strong language rights protection.
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Being Uighur . . . with “Chinese Characteristics”: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26906727
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